No King, But Many Connections:

 Networks and the Individual in Inuit and Melanesian Societies

By Claus Oreskov

Introduction

Inuit and Melanesian societies have long fascinated anthropologists for their decentralized political forms. Rather than relying on formalized leadership structures such as courts, inherited chieftaincy, or standing enforcement institutions, these societies maintain complex forms of order through reciprocity, shared obligations, and public performance. This article compares these two cultural spheres with particular focus on the role of the individual and the dynamics of relational power. It also reflects critically on the fluidity of cultural and ethnic categories and the methodological implications of such comparisons.

Theoretical Background

Mauss’s theory of the gift (1925) remains foundational for understanding the binding force of reciprocity. His lesser-known references to Eskimo societies—particularly regarding the moral imperative to share—are particularly apt for this analysis. Sahlins (1963) provides a typology of leadership in Melanesia, emphasizing the bigman’s role in wealth redistribution and alliance building. Bourdieu’s notion of social capital offers a useful framework for analyzing how influence is accumulated through embeddedness in social relations. This framework is further refined through ethnographic insights from Knud Rasmussen's 5th Thule Expedition and Robert Petersen’s work on Inuit reciprocity.

Inuit Social Networks: Becoming Through Relationships

Inuit society embeds the individual in a web of relations from birth. Through naming practices, children inherit the social and spiritual connections of their namesakes. Yet, identity and influence must be earned through acts of cooperation, generosity, and social attentiveness. Men become respected hunters not just by providing meat, but by distributing it widely across kin and settlement boundaries. Each gift creates ties, expectations, and reputational capital. Social standing is not inherited; it is performed.

The Role of Women: Sustaining Light and Life

Inuit women contributed vitally to the economy and symbolic life of the household. Masters of sewing and skin preparation, they ensured survival in extreme conditions. Their expertise was social capital. Just as importantly, they tended the qulliq, the oil lamp that provided heat and light during the long winters. This act was both practical and cosmological, linking the woman to the cycle of life and community wellbeing. In many narratives, the woman’s flame became a symbol of continuity and endurance.

Drum Song Duels (Kimilik) as Relational Ritual

In East Greenland, a unique and revealing form of reciprocal partnership developed through drum song duels, known in the local language as ”kimilik”. Far from being mere conflict-resolution tools, these public performances allowed participants to critique and satirize one another in front of a laughing audience. However, as documented by William Thalbitzer, H.C. Petersen, and Jens Rosing, the social consequences extended far beyond the duel.

Those who engaged in drum song duels often became long-term ritual partners, bound by a new form of social tie. This bond could include the exchange of gifts—notably meat or other valuable goods—with the partner’s family, similar to kin-based obligations. Drum song duels thus became a performative mechanism not just for diffusing tension but for establishing and expanding personal networks. It was an institution through which the individual could publicly demonstrate rhetorical skill, emotional control, and social generosity.

Bigman in Melanesia: Power Without Office

Melanesian societies, especially in Papua New Guinea, exhibit a system of status acquisition through the figure of the bigman. As detailed by Sahlins, bigmen do not inherit power; they must build it through strategic acts of giving and public feasting. Their ability to organize moka exchanges and redistribute pigs and shell valuables determines their influence. Failure to maintain this flow of generosity can lead to social marginalization.

Like the Inuit hunter or drum song partner, the bigman must actively create his network. His leadership is performative, contingent, and constantly under negotiation. Women in Melanesian societies may also play crucial roles, including in the exchange of barkcloth or bast skirts, which function as part of ceremonial gift economies. Though often less publicly acknowledged, these roles are integral to maintaining inter-household and intergroup relations.

Comparative Discussion

Both Inuit and Melanesian societies are built upon dynamic, non-hereditary forms of leadership and influence. In both cases, the individual must cultivate relationships, display competence, and engage in symbolic or material generosity. Yet the tone and form differ. Inuit sociality tends toward emotional restraint, subtlety, and harmony, while Melanesian bigman systems reward visible competition and public accumulation.

Moreover, these societies challenge static definitions of ethnicity and culture. Terms like “Inuit” or “Melanesian” mask the internal diversity and historical transformations within each region. These are not bounded wholes, but fluid networks of practice shaped by ecology, mobility, and memory.

Conclusion

This comparison of Inuit and Melanesian societies illuminates how decentralized systems create space for individual agency within collective frameworks. Whether through drum song duels or moka exchange, influence is not given—it is made. Both systems demonstrate that leadership can be grounded in reciprocity rather than hierarchy, and that personal relationships, not offices, are the true fabric of social order.

References

- Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. ”Outline of a Theory of Practice”. Cambridge University Press.
- Briggs, Jean. 1970. ”Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family”. Harvard University Press.
- Mauss, Marcel. 1925. ”The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies”.
- Petersen, Robert. 1985. "Gensidighed og omfordeling i grønlandske samfund." ”Tidsskriftet Grønland.”
- Rasmussen, Knud. 1932. ”The Fifth Thule Expedition 1921–1924”.
- Rosing, Jens. 1983. ”Sagn og saga fra Angmagssalik”.
- Sahlins, Marshall. 1963. "Poor Man, Rich Man, Big-Man, Chief: Political Types in Melanesia and Polynesia." ”Comparative Studies in Society and History” 5(3): 285–303.
- Thalbitzer, William. 1914. ”The Ammassalik Eskimo: Contributions to the Ethnology of the East Greenland Natives”.